![]() ![]() In terms of preparation and application of nanocellulose-stabilized emulsions on fresh fruit commodities, only limited studies have been reported. An appealing aspect of nanocellulose is its anisotropic fiber structure, allowing for stabilization of the oil–water interface at very low loading levels 22, 23. The use of polysaccharide-based emulsifiers such as nanocellulose has been gaining interest due to their prospective features including hydrophobicity, high adsorption capacity, biodegradability, and biocompatibility. Furthermore, that stability mechanism resulted in tight packing of irreversibly adsorbed particles at the interface thus reducing the diffusion surface area of lipid droplets 21. The solid particles play a role in preventing the collision and aggregation of emulsion droplets by accumulation at the oil–water interface. Pickering emulsion offers a prospective method to enhance the stability of the emulsion system by utilizing solid particles instead of surfactants 5, 19, 20. To overcome these limitations, a proper emulsion technique is essential. The oil droplet size and distribution along longitudinal and transverse sections led to a reduction in the distance as a consequence of water evaporation via flocculation and/or coalescence pathways 18. The development of essential oil-loaded biopolymer still remains a challenge due to its hydrophobic nature and volatility which reduce the stability and biological activity. Furthermore, SEO, which is commonly utilized as a food flavoring and adjuvant, is permitted for use in food applications by the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Flavor and Extract Manufacturers Association (FEMA), and the Council of Europe (CoE) 17. Earlier reports revealed the antifungal potency of SEO against Trichophyton mentagrophytes 14, Microsporum canis 15, and Trichophyton rubrum 16. Indonesian sandalwood essential oil (SEO), extracted from Santalum album originating from the Papua area contains potential active compounds, such as α- and β-santalol. Incorporation of essential oil (EO) has gained considerable interest due to its efficacy in increasing the antimicrobial performance of CS-based films and coatings 12, 13. Reports have documented improved methods in order to enhance CS performance including by: oil incorporation 5, 6 crosslinking 7, 8 and blending with gelatin, quinoa protein, tara gum, and zein 3, 9, 10, 11. Efforts to overcome the CS limitations, particularly antimicrobial improvements are ongoing 4. Despite the benefits have been demonstrated by CS-based films and coatings, the use of pure CS had a relatively limited antifungal activity 3. Among edible film-making materials (polysaccharides, proteins, and lipids), chitosan (CS) has been receiving increasing research attention due to its favorable properties including biocompatibility and antimicrobial action 1, 2. To achieve satisfactory characteristics, it is required that the selected biomaterials can form continuous network structures during the film-forming process. In recent years, due to growing environmental concerns, edible films and coatings have attracted interest in place of petroleum-based packaging. Emulsion-CNF stabilized coating may have potential applications for active coating for fresh fruit commodities. Atomic force microscopy and scanning electron microscopy were employed to characterize the biocompatibility of each coating film formulation. The incorporation of CNFs contributed to improve the functional properties of CS and SEO-loaded CS including light transmission at UV and visible light wavelengths and tensile strength. The effective concentration of CNFs (0.24%) may improve the performance of CS coating and maintain CS-SEO antifungal activity synergistically confirmed with a series of assays (in vitro, in vivo, and membrane integrity changes). Antifungal tests against Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium digitatum, between emulsion coating stabilized with CNFs (CS-SEOpick) and CS or CS-SEO was tested. Confocal laser scanning microscopy was performed to reveal the characteristics of droplet diameter and morphology. We found four typical groups of CNF level-dependent emulsion stabilization, including (1) unstable emulsion in the absence of CNFs (2) unstable emulsion (0.006–0.21% CNFs) (3) stable emulsion (0.24–0.31% CNFs) and (4) regular emulsion with the addition of surfactant. Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs) were used as a stabilizer agent of oil-in-water Pickering emulsion. A novel composite edible coating film was developed from 0.8% chitosan (CS) and 0.5% sandalwood oil (SEO). ![]()
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